Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christianity

In the first chapter of this book, Lamin Sanneh gives us a broad, diachronic survey of Christianity from the point of origin of Western imperial undertakings. Prior to this point in history, Christianity saw persecution and was placed under "penal surveillance." (17) At this time Christianity during its inception, while maintaining critical distinction, took on much of its contiguous cultural elements: namely, Hellenism. The major point of this chapter, is that Christianity had been a force of minority that came to its inception not through some legal forces, but rather instead of legal obstacles.

The second chapter examines Christianity from an Islamic perspective. While both adhere to a strictly ascetic mode of life, namely the call to maintain a certain purity in a perishing generation, in its proliferation Christianity encountered a historical stalemate against the Islamic faith. Notwithstanding the continuously, mutually conflictive stances there had been minor exceptions to this mutual barricade: "Al- Kindí spoke uncompromisingly about how anyone who sought truth that there is nothing of higher value than truth itself. That sentiment had parallels in Christian thought, and it was not surprising that, to the shock of fellow Muslims, al-Kandí wrote Apology for Christianity." (72-73)

The third chapter illuminates the colonial aspects of the expansion of Christianity, and the often, related enterprise of the transatlantic slave trade, exploitative structures such as fazendas, and other critical inconsistencies such as: "unholy greed for worldly wealth and the sins of the flesh..." (91) made vocal by Peruvian descendant of an Inca chief. Scores of inconsistencies are recorded within the pretext of Christendom, practices that far contradict the gospel message its proponents wielded, throughout South America during the 1500s and, West Africa during the 1800s.

The fourth chapter delves into the unfortunate cooperation marked throughout the history of Africa for one, between colonialist interests and mission. Furthermore, the Western imperialist cultural dominance was prevalent with its marks still lingering today: "In a relatively short space of time, missionaries completely subdued Creek Town and the adjoining country. Missionary ladies took the local girls and fitted them in Victorian clothes, thus imposing through its women the constraints and conceits their Western culture deemed appropriate to the gospel." (133) More recently, Albert Schweitzer who is celebrated in the West as an icon of humility and a "post-Enlightenment wonder," has a sharply contrasting evaluation from the African evaluation of "towering aloofness" (140) while, David Livingstone is noted as a distinguished for his efforts of cultural reciprocity: "...Livingstone adopted the cause of the Xhosa as his own. He said that, while England sympathized with the struggles for freedom that she so well enjoyed, she had inconsistently been trying to crush the Xhosa whose struggle for freedom was every bit as important as that of the Magyars of Hungary." (141-142)

The fifth chapter begins with the eighteenth-century Pietist movement in Europe, "taking a confessional stance against worldliness in the church, demanding repossession of the religion's moral autonomy against the compromisers (colonial and other interests that run contrary to the "purity" of faith, and the church). The revival triggered a movement of translation into the vernacular languages by which a sustainable ecclesiology was made evident without foreign mission control. This promised the possibility, of a non-Western interference in the development of Christianity in their indigenous setting: "...Westermann advanced reasons why vernacular translation was essential to the whole psychology of recasting Christianity in the idiom and psyche of an indigenous culture, translation was empowerment." (178) Sanneh concludes with a note on how we are on the "Post-Western Fault Line," as indicated as emergent churches in their current form in Africa, and also in China.

Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration, And the Transformation of the West

Doctor Jehu Hanciles contends that “despite entrenched notions of Western provenance and dominance within the globalization discourse, non-Western initiatives and movements are among the most powerful forces shaping the contemporary world order.” (37) This discourse begins with correctives emerging from revisionist examination of history and the idea of globalization as not a new concept, but an ongoing interpretation of change as defined through the dominant, western perspective.

This western perspective for the most part, has suffered according to Hanciles a progressive (or perhaps “terminal”) secularization which through promulgation of cultural ideology (academia) and market economy; (technology) has maintained its far-reaching influence and collective dominance.

At one end of the spectrum this perspective finds an analysis of cultural homogenization that would declare “End of History” (Fukuyama), while in reality there is another side to the coin, which is entrenched in between two dialectical poles of: Movement towards homogeneity in tension with resistance. In essence culture matters, and homogenization is in fact selective and not wholesale.

Much of the rhetoric on globalization then, is found to be in a state of partisan perspectives and not without some confusion, as in the tendency is to polarize the “western” and the “non-western.” For example, finding English as the lingua franca of the “global civilization” and considering what is in fact Americanization of the world, globalization. Things are always more complex than at the surface, as Hanciles endorses the view of Samuel Huntington for example, that “the post-Cold War world is a multipolar, multicivilizational world. A world in which the most important distinctions among peoples are not ideological, political, or economic but cultural;” (75)

Christendom is superimposed to this general tendency to identify the movement of western dominant perspective of “globalization” and defined as a post-Constantinian mandate of imperialism, as defining Christianity as primarily a “territorial religion.” Hanciles takes us through a critical tour through history, of the instrumentality of religion at the forefront of conquest and expansion: “mission by the sword” in cases of Charlemagne (c. 747-814), the infusion of nationalism into the mission enterprise by the time of Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), and the ensuing policies upheld by the infamous padroado of Iberian colonial interests. This pattern persisted through the Protestant centuries as: “valid missionary engagement required contiguity with, or access to, territory deemed non-Christian.” (As Roman Catholics had already been in contact with these centuries earlier)

Out of the mire of other salient failures that marks the advancement of the fabled “Christendom,” a turning-point emerges during the twentieth century, as a shift of presumed “center” (of spiritual vitality) is anticipated in the future, to be comprised of these “non-Western world”: and an admission “we must not press upon other races undesirable and unessential features of our Western Church life.” (127) And tying it back to the importance of culture, African Christianity is seen as a tour de force, a phenomenon in the twentieth century. With remarkable growth undertaken during enormous adversities, taking shape primarily of internal, African initiatives, long after colonialism or any Western missionary enterprise, in continuity with primal African religions, retaining indigenous values and world-views, that is marginalized but also seeing some global spread through globalization.

The strongest of Hanciles’ argument emerges out of a hermeneutic that appropriates the Christian religion as essentially, migratory. In the second part of his book is included, powerful account of convincing data in trends of immigration, which beckons a reinterpretation of the phenomenon, through the biblical perspective as well as to read the text with this aspect of relocation in mind. For instance, whereas previously the trend has been a migration pattern of North to South (latitudinally) a reversal is (and has been) in order- from South to North (in a diachronic, continental scale) as evidenced through a fairly recent and sharp increase in patterns of African immigration to its northern, European nations, as well as the migration of peoples from Central and South America to their North American neighbors.

Migration as a phenomenon, was reinforcement of the cause and effect circle of foreign mission during the three phases of Western expansion, namely: 1500-1800 European expansion and the Atlantic Slave Trade; 1800-1960 high imperialism and industrial growth; and global migrations beginning from the 1960s. In conclusion, the current understanding of what is “center” in global culture must be reconsidered, especially factoring the vast and complexities of migration as well as, factoring the elements of African Christianity in its remarkable growth, into the equation. What is anticipated, in final analysis, is of a destabilization of Christianity as European Christendom but to reaching far beyond, into an era where such dominance is naturally palliated by the contributions of Christian expressions from diverse cultures.

Emerging Churches: Creating Christian Communities in Postmodern Cultures

Emerging Churches by Eddie Gibbs and Ryan Bolger holds a logical thesis, which addresses the fact that the culture that traditional churches have been addressing no longer exists. This is backed by statistical estimates of minuscule church attendance in Europe, especially in the UK, and the rapidly declining patterns of church attendance here in the United States. As an introduction to this chapter the authors pose the incarnation of Jesus as the prime example as to the imperative of engagement and understanding of culture- indicating the modernity and Christendom of its era to be on a rapid decline, approaching its conclusion. Technology and climate of spiritual plurality, the promulgation of information and ideas have undergone dramatic, rapid shift to which a phenomenon of emerging churches is exegeted as necessary response which maintains relevance and shifts gears into a more missional mode- the church going to the places that are over-run, for example, by a club culture in the UK. The Baby boomer generation is conclusively identified as the last that is happy with the modern churches.

The second chapter delves into the other half of the thesis of this book, that emergent churches are not "passing fad representing an avant-guard style of worship," but rather "missional communities arising from within postmodern culture and consisting of followers of Jesus who are seeking to be faithful in their place and time." (28) In the vast array of terminology that is being circulated around the term "emergent churches," such as post-evangelicalism, the definition may be understood in a reductive sense, to be no more than "a way of expressing that we need new forms of church that relate to the emerging culture." (Jonny Baker- Grace, London 41) But to this, is also a list of descriptive characteristics: "...the emerging church is a quest for a more integrated and whole life of faith. There is a bit of theological questioning going on, focusing more on kingdom theology, the inner life, friendship/community, justice, earth keeping, inclusivity, and inspirational leadership. In addition, the arts are in a renaissance, as are the classical spiritual disciplines. Overall, it is a quest for a holistic spirituality." (Scandrette, 42) In short, communities that practice the way of Jesus within postmodern cultures. Nine practices are identified: 1) identify with the life of Jesus, 2) transform the secular realm, and 3) live highly communal lives- and as result 4) welcome strangers, 5) serve with generosity, 6) participate as producers, 7) create as created beings, 8) lead as a body, and 9) take part in spiritual practices.

It is a good place to begin, with Jesus. If the rhetoric is to be filled with the notion of discipleship, to identify just who we are becoming disciples of seems appropriate. In this section the centrifugal "going out" with the missio Dei is emphasized as the point to relate when considering Jesus Christ and his life, his teachings, his gospel and the message of the kingdom of God. In this the gospel is more strongly tied to how we live, rather than furnish a person with an insurance policy for when we die.

A good measure of this is coming about in the deconstruction of the sacred/secular divide. For the first time, the possibility of a world without God (secularism) was at least a notion that was filled with Cartesian mechanics and science occupying that previous space. The emerging churches redefine the limits of what can be sanctified, in an organic, nonlinear, holistic approach to theology in what is redeemable. In short, while previously the "either or" was the dividing line, now the "both and" situation applies to the dimensions of transcendence and immanence of God; textual culture and the visual culture; incarnation and worship in both the local and wider culture, and body (soma) and mind. But in the final analysis, "Emergent churches face a formidable task as they endeavor to distinguish between parts of church life that are rooted in the modern culture, to be discarded, and the parts that are gospel and need to be maintained." (88)

A feature of the emergent church movement is that of decentralization of worship, and deconstruction of modern conception of ecclesiology. Church is not a place but people, and this is fostered through a wide ranging network of apostolic communities. A group of less that 40 tops, with a median range of about fifteen, dedicated to each other through the long-term, defines the propensity for the emergent church to consider small group. The idea of "two or more" gathered in Jesus' name is taken in at face value, where the aim is to make sacred, any gathering what would be spontaneous worship. The setting is not of importance but rather why a people are gathered: mutual accountability, movement for mission, aiming for a more invasive, "liquidity" of the church into every aspect of society is at the heart of any intentional communities that emerge as church.

One of the major critiques of the modern church is that of its exclusive nature, where conformity appears to be its ensuing central feature. Welcoming the stranger, to practice inclusion, "to integrate worship with welcome" is at the heart of the missional characteristic of the emergent church. Whereas this may have been a peripheral agenda for the church, the missional church dedicates itself to make it central (as led by the Holy Spirit). The welcome space becomes rather, a safe place in an environment of tolerance and mutual understanding, dialogue, discussions. The outreach aspect does not have to be programmatic, the emergent church by its own nature is already entrenched in a transparent humility that would allow those with different beliefs to become conversant with the central convictions of the kingdom, and teachings of Jesus Christ in continuous praxis. Apologetics, rather than a verbal defense of faith, becomes rather, an embodied practice of faith. Effectively, faith moves from a privatized compartment into the public.

Perhaps the most penetrating of issues that the emergent churches confront, is that of the commercial nature of church practices. Religious consumerism with expectations of participation in the form of funding, is addressed as a major violation of the "gift" aspect of the kingdom. The same mistake of humanistic liberalism is countered by way of generously giving to the more fundamental soul necessities of the person, which carry a longer-range commitment in both practicing hospitality, and giving sacrificially. Some of the more radical initiatives in sharing the good news is to become the people of good news, to not focus on the sin-focused presentations of the message which in many presenters is a lack of credibility and consistency. Movements from a spiritualized (dualistic) gospel, towards an embodied (holistic) gospel; from proclaiming a message to demonstrating personal concern; from tithing for the church, towards tithing by the church; in sum, the idea is to be free from institutional costs in order to be able to channel expenditures for necessities and services, with generosity.

Another of the criticisms of the modern church, as it relates to its consumerist tendencies is that for one, it is incongruous to the participatory nature as presented in the New Testament. This may aptly fit the enduring indictments that church has been an agent that suppresses innovation and stifles creativity. In Yorba Linda for example, (Christ Community of Faith) services are structured in a way that if those present were discouraged to engage in detached observation- in effect, that the benefit of the service was through participation and not passive consumption. As producers of the worship service, there is a sense of commitment and responsibility imbued in each participants, conducive to the incarnational approach that the emergent churches are moving towards. In this is also the deep personalization of worship, which may be done out in the world through a variety of accessories that are important to the individual. It may be any modality of the media as graphic design, music, and other arts- to just "be your self before God and encourage others to do the same." The desired effects are, flexibility, interactivity, contribution of individual story (testimony) but not without challenges and false starts. Nevertheless, the aim is to make the worshipers producers, not consumers.

This would lead then, for us to explore what it means to be made in the imago Dei, to be created as creators. "The urge to be creative is not ego driven but rather arises out of a theology of personhood and community identity": The movement away from a certain "McDonaldization of the Church," and its model of efficiency as the highest virtue. To validate creativity of the individual is an affirmation of creativity as worship, to have acts of creativity become an offering to the creator. This is not to disregard tradition, but to encourage its continuous reinterpretation. What maybe unexpected, is that the priority is set on authenticity and not relevancy. In the final analysis, this advocacy for creativity does in fact increase the dynamic range of what could be considered worship, with both intensity and punctuations of humor, sustainability, rituals, public venues, contextualization, adaptation, popular culture and giftedness.

In conclusion, there is a fair amount of revision regarding what the church has been through modernity, and what the biblical church looks like. The emerging church scene certainly purports to reduce the gap. There are many favorable points for the case of the emergent church, while there are critics that are wary on points regarding the maintenance of orthodoxy, the decidedly down-played emphasis on sin, and personal as well as corporate holiness.